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红色文化资源与地方经济开发作者：王爱华, 罗中昌
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图书分类
Book classification- This volume is developed from the selective revised papers of the first “International Symposium on Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States” held at Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China, on June 12-13, 2015. The conference was cosponsored by the Sichuan Province Center for American Studies, the School of Political Science of Southwest Jiaotong University, and the Association of Chinese Political Studies (in the U.S.). Participants of the symposium came from more than ten universities in China and the United States. ...查看更多
- Introduction: Comparative Analysis of Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States
序言：中美地方治理创新比较分析
Guoli LIU
刘国力
This volume is developed from the selective revised papers of the first “International Symposium on Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States” held at Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China, on June 12-13, 2015. The conference was cosponsored by the Sichuan Province Center for American Studies, the School of Political Science of Southwest Jiaotong University, and the Association of Chinese Political Studies (in the U.S.). Participants of the symposium came from more than ten universities in China and the United States.
The importance of local governance is well reflected in the saying of “all politics is local.” The Sichuan Province Center for American Studies was established in 2013. Upon careful deliberation, the Center for American Studies has decided to focus on studying “Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States”. The Center’s development strategy is closely linked to the distinctive regional features as well as socioeconomic, cultural, and educational needs of Chengdu city and Sichuan Province. We strive to actively contribute to the reaching out strategy of Chengdu and Sichuan, become a key member of “Tianfu think tanks”, promote the Center’s academic excellence, and strengthen the Center’s social impact.
The Center for American Studies will focus on “Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States” with special attention to comparative analysis of the following issues: Key theoretical and policy issues in local governance innovation; Anti-corruption measures and clean governance education; Policies of attracting external investment and promoting foreign investment; Social welfare polices and law and order issues; Ecological and environmental protection and pollution clean-up; Transportation regulation and urban development; Education equality and internationalization of education; Cultural heritage protection and tourism policies; Disaster prevention, relief, and emergence response; Ethnic relations and racial equality issues; Governance innovation in the era of new media; and other issues related to local governance in the United States and China in general and issues related to Chengdu and Sichuan’s relations with U.S. cities and states in particular.
The first International Symposium on Local Governance Innovation in China and the United States in June 2015 is a joint academic endeavor by scholars from both countries. In order to share the fruits of our labor with a broad audience, we have invited authors of selected papers to revise and update their chapters for this edited volume. This book is divided into four parts: (1) Comparative local governance innovation; (2) Theoretical and policy issues; (3) Governance and development; and (4) Key issues of local governance.
Part I focuses on comparative local governance innovation. Kendra B. Stewart of the College of Charleston, South Carolina examines key issues of citizen participation and government accountability. In an era of increased accountability and responsibility at the local level, the necessity to engage and inform the public plays an even more important role in local governance today. New forms of communication and social media create additional expectations and challenges for local governments as well. Effective engagement can promote citizen satisfaction, government accountability and increased public awareness. Stewart seeks to explore innovative practices being used by local governments to engage citizens in meaningful and productive ways. The purpose is to determine best practices in this area and lessons learned that can be applied to local governments across the U.S. and China. Stewart finds that public engagement at the local level is continuing to change and expand. Opportunities provided by new technology and processes are allowing governments to meet increased demands. Citizen engagement can be effective at solving community problems and improving trust and buy-in to policies and programs. Involving citizens in the decision making process can be risky and may not always work. These efforts are most likely to fail if there is a lack of clarity in the purpose of engagement by both decision makers and participants. However, as demonstrated by the cases presented in this chapter, there is evidence that when properly executed, public participation can have a lasting and significant impact on local government.
Dongping Han from Warren Wilson College argues that the discussion of rule of law in our world has been very superficial. Most scholars take the merits of rule of law for granted. In this social climate, few people take the risk of examining the social and political implications of law in society. Han has been studying local governance in rural China for more than two decades and has been engaged in discussing the merits of a model of local governance in China that is almost opposite to the rule of law. He describes rural China’s system a community approach to local governance. Based on many years of rural research, his chapter is an attempt to examine the merits of the model of a community approach to governance in light of the rule of law in the U.S. It is high time for Chinese people to recognize the complex nature of rule by law and to appreciate the merits of the community governance model which is more suited to China and more in agreement with Chinese culture. There is a class dimension in the discussion of rule of law. This class bias in the rule of law can be seen very clearly in the U.S. as well. Most people who admire the American rule of law are Chinese and American elite. The rule of law usually protects and defends the elite members of society. In the U.S. the people who are locked up in jail are often the people who cannot afford to pay a small amount of bond for nonviolent crimes and misdemeanors. When the minorities, the poor, and the oppressed suffer injustice, the majority, the rich and powerful, will have to pay for it collectively in the end as well. The American legal system with its unique rule of law has incarcerated a huge percentage of its minorities and those who are poor and oppressed, the cost of which has overburdened America’s fiscal capacity. When the minorities cannot bear the injustice any more and start to riot, like they are doing in Ferguson and Baltimore, the costs will be felt by the whole society as well.
Baogang Guo from Dalton State College stresses that local governance holds a key to a real understanding of political system in any country. In both China and the United States county governance is the basic local administrative unit. Due to the vast difference between the two countries’ political system and bureaucratic responsibilities, county level governance is expected to be very different, and therefore, poses some challenges to a comparative analysis. However, as China has set the goal of modernizing its political governance, which also includes streamlining its local governance, a comparative analysis can provide some useful reference and lessons for China to consider. Guo compares Lankao County in Henan province in China with Cobb County in Georgia in the U.S. Three main areas are closely examined: the functional responsibilities, performance measurement, and decision- making process. China and U.S. represent the two extremes of local governance systems, one is based on a strong government, meritocracy, and personal relationships, and the other is based on small government, elections, and emphasis on procedures and law. China certainly reguires the strengthening of electoral accountability, open and transparent decision making process, and strong rule of law.
P. Brian Fisher and Guoli Liu of the College of Charleston examine local governance innovation through sustainability. Sustainability is a vital issue in innovative governance and community development. They argue that governance innovation and sustainable development require a multi- dimensional and multi-layered approach. The new approach builds local resilience based on contextuality and diversity through regional sustainability. That is, we must think regionally to address our support systems at their root level – energy, waste, water, etc. From there, we must create networks from within the regions to other regions and municipalities that can create redundancy and larger system resilience. Charleston is a city of deep tradition with a growing focus on sustainable development. People in Charleston take great pride in their historical tradition and a livable environment. In recent years, the city of Charleston and the Low Country (Charleston, Berkeley, and Dorchester counties) have experimented with some innovative policies of sustainable development. The College of Charleston has taken a series of innovative approaches under the leadership of the Office of Sustainability. Although the pressure for more economic development is growing, with well-designed policies and new mental models of sustainable development, Charleston, SC is likely to meet the dual challenges of preserving a livable environment and developing the economy. Lessons from Charleston might help Chengdu and other cities to build a better balance between sustainable development and innovative local governance. Sustainable development requires strong political leadership and effective governance. Good governance ultimately should be evaluated by success or failure in building sustainable development. Good governance and sustainable development are like two wings of a bird. The bird cannot fly with a single wing. Both good governance and sustainable development are essential for building high quality livable community.
Part II examines theoretical and policy issues in local governance. “Social and Ecological Justice in Shanghai and Beyond: A Marxist Assessment” is written by Josef Gregory Mahoney of East China Normal University. With a worsening environment, growing health concerns, a hamstrung migrant population, troubling economic indicators and a variety of other issues that sometimes spur local, national and international political tensions, we are left questioning the very meaning of “progress” and all that Shanghai symbolizes. This is brought into sharp relief when hearing Shanghai described in Chinese as being “already developed”, as having reached a position that other parts of China are still striving to reach as the country continues to urbanize. How many “Shanghais” can China build and sustain? Is one enough or is it already one too many? We will also address questions like: “Is Shanghai a city of the future or past? Is it a ‘global city’, an important node of capitalist globalization, and as such, are its market-driven excesses fundamentally at odds with social and ecological justice? And what might this mean as Shanghai confronts its problems and opportunities while other parts of China do the same?” Mahoney examines these critical questions from both theoretical and empirical approaches. He raised additional questions including the following: How should we assess Shanghai: Is it a city of the past, present, or future? Of course, the intellectual would respond: “All three.” But we ask the question in terms of its current development trend. Is it trending towards increasing marketization and related concerns for social and ecological justice? And is this model or vision of the future too capitalistic, and is it spreading elsewhere in China? Mahoney believes that capitalism is merely the current stage of human development, and we believe, more than ever, that its unsustainability is reflected in contemporary struggles against its various forms of injustice – struggles that we view as intensifying.
Bohai Lin and Gaifeng Zhang of Southwest Jiaotong University analyze the adjustment of mainstream ideology in contemporary China under the national governance perspective. “The national governance modernization” has been putting forward as the total goal of the comprehensively deepening reform. It is important for the Chinese Communist Party to keep its ideology adjustment. The status quo of “the problems of China”, reflecting on history, the reference on the other countries’ experience and the needs to deepen understanding of ideology, all enhance the Chinese Communist Party going on with its ideology work and adjustment, so as to maintain its power in leadership and political legitimacy. New ideas, which produced due to the adjustment of the mainstream ideology, provide the theoretical principles and practical guidance for a series of reforms led by the CPC. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the changes of the Chinese Communist Party in the ideological field since the reform and opening-up and further clarify the internal logic between the dominant ideology adjustment and national governance modernization.
Qingsi Li of Renmin University of China examines various manifestations of American patriotic education, such as history education, citizen education, ritual education, education in life and culture influence etc. Since the reform and opening up to the outside world, patriotic education has gradually and quietly become a factual taboo in China, even there are no such regulations as not to be patriotic. Many Chinese voluntarily avoid that sensitive topic. Compared with China and other big powers in the world today, American patriotic education is quite successful. For instance, though it is widely believed that individualism prevails over in the US, more than 70% young people think that national interests are above the individual’s, the highest among the 18 advanced western countries, some survey also indicates that more Americans (81%) tend to say yes than Japanese and West European counterparts when asked whether they should fight for their nation or not, also the highest ratio among world big powers. In one word, the mainstream American culture is patriotism, but pays more attention to skills of patriotic education. Different from the American situation, Chinese gap is quite big between what the government preaches from the existing reality, the most obvious contradiction is reflected in severe corruption. The US is certainly not a corruption free country, but check and balance against each other have prevented the most rampant corruption, especially free media have helped release people’s anger in the society. As a result, if a government always preaches that it serves the people first but reality is on the contrary, it will not only suffer losing people’s confidence, but make people suspicious the government patriotic education intention as a policy of keeping the people in ignorance.
According to Xingxiang Xu and Juan Luo of Southwest Jiaotong University, developing new energy industry is a strategic choice of the U.S. to seize the future opportunity for development. In order to promote science and technology innovation of new energy, the U.S. government formulated a series of laws and policy measures to guarantee the development of new energy industry. The federal and local governments provide strong support of scientific and technological innovation of new energy in the aspects of funding, tax incentives, financial subsidies, financing and skill trainings. Some of these efforts are jointly taken by government, enterprises, and colleges and universities. Technological innovation could be invested, researched, developed, and applied either individually or jointly. Such technological innovation can contribute to sustainable development of the new energy industry in the United States.
Lichun Shi of Southwest Jiao-tong University analyzes the “Populist Political Thought under America Context and the National Governance of Contemporary China”. The populist political thought has become a starting point of the explanatory framework of Western populism. As a kind of very critical and irrational ethos, it is the strong base colors of the populist movement in the process of modernization, and it has affected contemporary China since the reform and opening up, which provides important reference for studying the China populist political thought. Because there are many contradictions during the transition period, and much progress has been made in the market economy and democracy, with the network technology growing fast, the internet populism has become the main form of China populism. The internet populism destroys the social order, subverts the authority, and challenges the contemporary China national governance. Therefore, only by enhancing the social justice and strengthening the rule of law, can we weaken and even eliminate the harm of network populism.
Part III focuses on governance and development. Margaret F. Reid of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville examines “Strategic Choices in Developing Local Tourism Programs: Applications to Southwest China”. Tourism has become one of China’s key industries according to its most recent 5-year plan, and many provincial governments have targeted tourism as a growth industry. China’s increased attraction for tourists from the Asian region, but also from North America and Europe, poses a series of challenges that fall largely into the following general categories: (1) determining the appropriate use of market instruments to promote tourism in the context of China’s current institutional context; (2) deploying differential strategies to preserve local culture and heritage; (3) increasing attention to the potentially detrimental impacts of tourism on ecologically fragile areas; and (4) recognizing barriers to effective collaborations between central, provincial and local governments, NGOs, tourism operators, and international agencies (such as UNESCO). Reid focuses on the southwest region as one of the emerging tourist areas in China. Yet research approaches how best to address these challenges have been slow forthcoming. Using an integrated conceptual firework this chapter examines several cases in the southwest region. The focus on the southwest region is two-fold: Sichuan and other southwestern provinces (such as Yunnan, Guizhou) are attractive to tourists for their rich biodiversity, presence of nature reserves/ national parks, and their ethnic diversity (for example, the creation of ecomuseums and other efforts to protect and promote ethnic minorities and preserve their cultural heritage).
Reid concludes that China is only at the beginning of what could become a major economic boon for the country and the diversification of its economic base. With a growing middle class and an abundance of nature-based as well as cultural assets, innovation becomes the next key challenge for Chinese tourism planners. Protection of these assets must be a prime consideration to be able to develop their uses for the continued enjoyment of the visitors and the economic wellbeing of the communities in which they are based. While traditional planning methods in the field of tourism have been largely centrally controlled (often with marked influences by western approaches and strategies), national policy makers could benefit by seeking direction in these efforts from local and provincial decision makers who are most familiar with their context and can identify new sites or improve existing one. The Chengdu conference on local governance innovation in June 2015 stressed regional collaboration around some projects that extend beyond the province’s own borders (such as infrastructure projects that can connect various sites). Many tourists are increasingly mobile and may wish to visit some sites briefly before returning for longer visits. Better understanding of the timing of arrivals of international and domestic tourists can extend tourism seasons in many sites and thus provide reliable sources of incomes for local entrepreneurs. From an institutional perspective, Reid convincingly argues that tourism planners must unceasingly manage complex policy systems that require the collaboration of all governmental levels and increasingly also include private companies (both domestic and international) which demand greater independence from government regulations.
Kuibin Zhu and Liu Yang provide a case study of “Chinese Monitoring Mechanism on EIA Procedure of Local Government in Development of Projects”. California high-speed rail is a key part of the blueprint for American high-speed rail construction as well as a significant project of California state government. The EIA system and the supervision mode involved could be references of exploring American high-speed rail market. And inspirations on mechanisms of EIA oversight could be drawn from this case for the early stage of local government projects in China. Zhu and Liu suggest strengthening foreign related legal knowledge, research and changing the mechanism to promote high-speed rail oversea strategy. What’s more, in order to avoid local government “build without approval” under GDP growth pressure, responsible leaders and citizens should make effort to perfect the EIA supervision mechanisms in early stage of a project with the joint efforts and proper function setting of environment protection department, procuratorial organs, and citizen litigation. This case study has implications for China’s high-speed rail’s “going out strategy”.
Juan Zhang of Southwest Jiaotong University reviews “the Development of the Rail Freight and Passenger Transportation in the United States”. As an economically developed country, the U.S. has a glorious history in the development of railway. The U.S. has the longest and the most densely populated railway line in the world. With its unique advantages, American railway network dominates the freight market in the United States. But the development of American railway passenger transportation is not smooth. The majority of the Americans are heavily dependent on automobile transportation. After the 2008 financial crisis, the high-speed rail plan which was pushed by the government has met many obstacles. Now only California has begun construction of a high-speed railway. The high-speed rail project in America has been blocked by its domestic political dynamics, the government decision-making process, people’s consumption habits, and many other factors. In the U.S. private investors are profit-seeking. It is not realistic to fund a high-speed railway with mostly provide capital. High-speed rail is capital intensive long-term investment with relatively slow returns. With huge federal deficits and strong partisan rivalry, the federal government will not reach consensus on building a high-speed railway. The high-speed rail is not likely to be an efficient system in the American context. With strong environmental regulations and complex legal system, building a national high-speed railway will meet enormous amount of resistance. Related studies might contribute to better understanding of key challenges facing the bold initiatives of “one belt and one road”.
Wei He of Southwest Jiaotong University and Haohang Xu of Georgia Southwest State University examine “Perspectives of Tourism Management of Local Government in Two Cities: Charleston and Americus”. The cooperation between local government and private sectors make a concerted effort to spur the sustainable development of tourism. Environmental protection is one of the basic policies of local government in the United States. Tourism preservation, exploitation and control have been a problem and have tremendous importance to cities worldwide. This study clearly demonstrates that local government has a vital catalytic role in orchestrating ecofriendly tourism and sustainable development. The local government in the U.S. is able to steer public participation to tourism preservation and management. For the fourth year, the readers of Condé Nast Traveler have voted Charleston the Top U.S. City. Known for rich history, well-preserved architecture, a celebrated restaurant community and mannerly people, Charleston also ranked No. 2 Top City in the World by Condé Nast Traveler 2014 Readers’ Choice Awards. To develop and supervise tourism is vitally important to Charleston. Tourism management is a key component of the Executive Department’s role. The city of council develops long-range strategic planning for the Bureau, coordinates all departmental activities within the organization and develops policies and programs to further diversify the product mix and appeal of the Charleston area as a destination. Americus’ history date back to 1832 when Sumter County was carved from a portion of Lee County. The area had been an important trading area for the Creek Indians. The Indians had built several villages along the Aumucculle Creek and Flint River areas. The mayor of the city greeted the citizen and the visitor cordially: “In the City of Americus, your government is working for you.” In the city of Americus, there are two specialized agencies, Americus Tourism Council and Historic Preservation Commission. The Historic Preservation Commission was established to provide protection, preservation and rehabilitation of historic properties within the historic district. Property owners within this district are required to obtain approval of alterations or new construction involving historic properties by submitting a Certificate of Appropriateness to the Commission. The job of the local government is to serve the community. Citizens can contact local officials and attend public hearings. The interactive nature of local government helps it serve the community well. Being so close to the people offers special challenges to local governments.
Part IV examines key contemporary and historical issues of local governance. Haosheng Zheng of Southwest Jiaotong University focuses on “Does Decentralization Improve the Public Service Supply: Evidences from the Reform of Reinforcing Counties by Granting More Powers by Sichuan Province”. Reform of reinforcing counties by grating more powers is the main form of Chinese government’s decentralization reform practice under the provinces in recent years. Zheng found that the reform has significantly improved the reformed counties or cities’ transportation infrastructure and supply level of health services; transfer payment has improved the reformed counties or cities’ supply of transport infrastructure, but failed to enhance the supply level of medical and health services. This provides empirical evidence for promoting the reform of decentralization that under the provinces and the improvement of the transfer payment system.
“The Impact of Mass Media on Public Participation Attitude” is a case study from Chengdu conducted by Chunmei Li of Southwest Jiaotong University. She examines five mass media variables, namely media type, exposure time, exposure frequency, acceptance and attention, that are closely relevant to and influence public participation attitude based on a sample of 1359 Chengdu residents. The research findings show that public participation attitude significantly differs when the five mass media variables vary; therefore mass media have a great impact on public participation attitude, suggesting that good use of mass media will positively affect public participation attitude toward social and public affairs. Li’s survey research finds that the Internet, television, and smart phones have the strongest impact on public participation and popular attitudes. It is a challenge to raise the trust worthiness of the mass media in the age of information revolution.
“Image-building of Local Government under the New Media Context” is coauthored by Tian Xu and Dongdong Fu of Southwest Jiaotong University. The government’s image is an important intangible resources of local government. The advent of new media provides both opportunities as well as challenges. Local governments can help create a new image and enhance public citizen identity politics in the new media context.
Xuemei Tian and Huan Yang from Southwest Jiaotong University examine “New Model of Handling Contradictions at Grass-roots Level”. This is a case study of Xinjin County in Chengdu. County is not only the origin that engenders the interest conflict and the social contradictions but also the key point to coordinate the interest relationship and ease social contradictions. Facing the increasingly diverse demands of the people’s livelihood, build a new set of mechanism which can tackle the demands of the people’s livelihood timely and resolve social contradiction from the origin, is a new exploration to the development of deliberative democracy at the grass-roots level.
Gang Fang from Southwest Jiaotong University studies “Transition of the Custom of Cuo Guan Inhumation (Parking Coffin before Burial)”. Cuo Guan inhumation is a tradition which bears some functions of instrumental rationality and traditional value that other corpse disposal methods do not have or cannot replace. Geomorphic feature and economic development affected the process and result of the funeral and interment reforms. Urban and rural residents exhibited various reactions including fierce resistance, superficial obedience, and moderate consensus, or ready acceptance when they faced reforms guided by the government. The frequent flow of population has accelerated the growth of market-instrumental rationality and has become the endogenous driving force. The funeral and interment reforms carried out by Tongcheng government in 2014, as exogenous compulsory force, has greatly accelerated the natural historical process of the decline and disappearance of this traditional custom. Fang suggests that local government should demonstrate patience and caution in carrying out reform of burial and interment. The government must pay attention to the interests of the citizens and follow legal norms and regulations.
Zhongxing Cheng from the Southwest Jiaotong University studies the spatial effects of traffic modernization in the connection area, which is based upon two angles: varying of average distance of population mobility and the ethnic group distribution, changing of primary industry and tourist industry. Cheng finds that the average movable scope along the national road of 317 and 318 has extended noticeably, but the scope along 108 national road has extended just little. At the same time, the minority proportions along the national road of 317, 318, and 108 have increased, and the Han proportions along the 214 national road have also increased. Furthermore, traffic improvement has greatly promoted the development of the tourist industry in the connection area, although it has not taken great change of the structure of the primary industry.
Zizhong Li from the Southwest Jiaotong University offers a “Preliminary Analysis of Relationship between Local Governance and State Structure of China”. He explores the impact of various factors of local governance in contemporary China for achieving modernization of national governance. China has its own national structure and state structure closely related to local governance. Li also examines the power structure of local government with a focus on regulatory role.
In addition to the authors of the above chapters, other scholars have contributed to the international symposium of local government innovation in China and the United States. Jianmei Zhu, Vice President of Southwest Jiaotong University, and Wei Liang, President of the Association of Chinese Political Studies, made presentations at the opening ceremony and pointed out the importance of studying local governance in China and the United States. Xiaobo Hu of Clemson University made a presentation on “Local Government Entrepreneurship: Public Goods, Public Risks and Public Administration”. Jinghao Zhou of Hobart and William Smith Colleges presented a paper on “Effectively Battling Corruption and Accelerating Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation”. Harry Lesesne of Charleston Parks Conservancy discussed new local governance and non-profit organizations. Ka Zeng of University of Arkansas, Wayne Smith and Henry Xie from the School of Business at the College of Charleston actively participated in the discussion. Other faculty members and students from Southwest Jiaotong University and the College of Charleston participated in the conference.
A journey of ten thousand miles begins with the first step. The international symposium on local governance innovation in China and the United States, and this book are the initial steps of a long-term academic endeavor in studying local governance in the two countries in comparative perspectives. Authors of this book and other participants of the symposium are determined to advance our knowledge and understanding of innovative local governance and sustainable development. We sincerely hope that our effort will contribute to a large effort by scholars around the globe to enlighten key issues of local governance and improve people’s livelihood with theoretical insights and policy innovations.
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